Books
“Think before you speak. Read before you think.”
– Fran Lebowitz
Books
“Think before you speak. Read before you think.”
– Fran Lebowitz
Handbook of Research on Identity Theory in Marketing
Quick Chapter Overviews
Identity salience: understanding when identity affects consumption Keri L. Kettle
In this chapter, I argue that identity researchers should use natural, practical interventions to make identities salient. Identity scholars understand how identity salience should affect behavior, yet struggle to effectively predict when a particular identity will drive a consumer’s real-world behavior. The cost of research leads scholars to use heavy-handed, unsubtle identity interventions that definitively make an identity salient, such asking a person multiple questions about the focal identity. But, is this what identity salience looks like in the field? This main idea in my chapter is evidenced by the complete absence of similar activities in the field: when was the last time you entered a store or browsed a website and had to spend five minutes describing an identity-relevant activity before you shopped? I review recent research that – thankfully – provides hope that identity salience may be obtained with subtle cues.
This chapter is important because adopting more natural identity salience interventions, such as having a person sign their name, will enable researchers to study a wider range of identities, better understand the process by which particular identities become more (or less) salient, and provide practical interventions for marketing practitioners to use.
Nobody has to lose: introducing the concurrent identity and goal activation (CIGA) framework Juliano Laran
Consumer psychology researchers have identified how people who associate themselves with a certain identity (“I am a college student”) or goal (“I want to graduate”) behave. Unfortunately, an association with certain identities or goals may lead to harmful behavior, such as when a college student identity is salient and as a result the person ends up binge drinking. In this chapter I propose a solution to this problem, arguing that there are situations in which it is important for consumers to have both an identity and a goal salient at the same time, as this may help consumers to avoid harmful behaviors. In the example provided above, making the goal “I want to graduate” equally as salient as the college student identity may be a simple way to avoid harmful behavior. In this case, the identity by itself may result in harmful behavior, but not when the identity is accompanied by an equally salient goal. There are also situations in which a goal can result in harmful behavior, but the concurrent presence of an identity generates beneficial behavior. The chapter presents several examples of these goal‒identity interactions and how they can benefit people.
This chapter is important because it emphasizes the need for academics to study how identities and goals interact, rather than studying how each operate separately. It can also help policy-makers to better structure appeals that will emphasize identity‒goal combinations that can protect people against harmful behaviors. Finally, this chapter helps individuals to understand how they can change which goals they associate with certain identities in order to take advantage of the benefits that identity can bring.
An evolutionary approach to identity research Aziza C. Jones, Kristina M. Durante and Vladas Griskevicius
In this chapter, we argue that a person can use an evolutionary approach to provide insight into modern identity, and we focus on the identity salience concept. An evolutionary approach to the study of behavior considers how a given behavior came about over the course of human history and how it may have served an adaptive function, and this perspective can lead to novel hypotheses. This main idea of our chapter is evidenced by our review of three different insights of evolutionary theory, and further illustrated as we use these insights to offer novel predictions in the area of identity literature. The first insight considers how natural selection has shaped the human brain to favor quick and easy categorization of evolutionarily ancient identities such as age, biological sex and health status. On this account, we predict that evolutionary ancient identities such as these will be more fixed within a person’s psychology than identities that arose more recently in human history, such as race and political affiliation. The second insight reviews literature on life history strategies, which are life-long adaptive mechanisms based on an individual’s childhood environment. We hypothesize that childhood environments will predict the identities that become most salient later in life. The third insight recognizes that humans have lived in small groups throughout the majority of human history. Humans formed identities around their health and group coalitions to enhance survival, especially when faced with an imminent threat. Hence, our final prediction is that the identity most salient in a human’s cognition will depend in part on whether they sense threat (for example, disease, scarcity or violence).
This chapter is important because it demonstrates the predictive value of an evolutionary approach applied to the development of novel hypotheses in identity research, and illustrates why a consideration of the evolutionary history of various identities is a tool that marketers can use to better understand the hidden forces behind identity-driven behaviors.
How signaling motives and identity salience influence luxury consumption Keith Wilcox
In this chapter, I argue that certain identity-signaling motives are associated with specific aspects of consumers’ identity. Thus, consistent with the identity salience principle, when these aspects of identity are made salient this increases consumers’ desire for luxury products and influences the types of luxury products they consume. The main ideas in my chapter are evidenced by previous research examining how five distinct identitysignaling motives (compensatory consumption, communicating cultural capital, mating, self-expression and differentiation) influence luxury consumption, and are further illustrated in the areas of identity salience and conspicuous consumption.
This chapter is important because identity-signaling has been shown to be an important driver of luxury consumption. However, past research has not explored the role of identity salience in luxury consumption in great detail. This chapter provides a comprehensive examination of how identitysignaling and identity salience shape luxury consumption by presenting a unifying framework on the relationship. The main audience for this chapter is academics who will benefit from an overview of past research on identity-signaling, identity salience and luxury consumption. Additionally, the framework introduced in this chapter can serve as a guide for future academic research on identity and luxury consumption. Practitioners will also find this chapter useful as it discusses ways that marketers can tailor their marketing efforts to better connect their product and brands to the identity motives that underlie the decision to purchase luxury products.
The role of identity salience in creative thinking Ravi Mehta, Lidan Xu and Darren W. Dahl
In this chapter, we explore how and why salience of various aspects of one’s identity can influence creativity. Although prior research has examined a myriad of identity-related factors that have implications for creativity, such work appears to be rather fragmented and lacks a common thread tying different aspects of identity together for a comprehensive understanding of its impact on creativity. We offer an integrative and parsimonious framework consolidating the diverse body of extant work to establish a better understanding of the relationship between identity salience and creativity. This main idea in our chapter ‒ explication of the relationship between identity salience and creativity ‒ is examined through three main factors: (1) chronic disposition (for example, tendency to question existing norms, and openness to new ideas); (2) the individual’s environment (for example, socio-economic status and multicultural experiences); and (3) stimulus cues (for example, salience of social norms and group memberships) – that may activate different aspects of identity, and in turn influence consumer behavior in general and creativity in particular.
This chapter is important because through delineation of the relationship between identity salience and creativity, it not only integrates current knowledge but also opens up new avenues for future academic research. In addition, it offers suggestions for marketers and practitioners for inducing identity salience to facilitate consumer creativity. For example, marketing appeals or retail settings (both offline and online) that activate various aspects of identity can encourage consumers to demonstrate their creative side through contributions to companies’ innovative processes (for example, during crowdsourcing tasks) and/or adoption of new products.
Branding virtuous victimhood: how activating the salience of a consumer’s moral identity motivates resource transfers to victim groups Maja Graso, Karl Aquino and Ekin Ok
In this chapter we argue that virtuous victim branding can be an effective form of marketing that advocacy groups may use to better the lives of people whose interests they want to advance. In order to improve their constituents’ lives, advocates need to influence consumers to transfer resources (for example, money, time, admission of responsibility, or sympathy) to groups they represent. To do so effectively, we propose that advocates must signal that their constituents are: (1) victims of harm; and (2) virtuous. This main idea in our chapter is evidenced by a dynamic model of resource transfer between would-be benefactors and beneficiaries who claim a victim identity: signaling the virtuous victimhood of constituents encourages consumers to part with their resources, because this signal appeals to what consumers find satisfying about helping those in need. Our argument is further illustrated in the areas of prosocial behavior and moral identity: we theorize that helping virtuous victims not only elicits positive affect in consumers, but it also provides them with an opportunity to reinforce the salience of morality in their self-concept and to signal their moral goodness to others.
This chapter is important because it will help advocacy groups wanting to create an effective and durable brand for their constituents, while differentiating them from other victimized groups competing for the same resources. We hope the ideas presented in this chapter will also be of interest to academics working in the areas of morality, identity and prosocial behavior, as they illustrate a novel form of identity signaling that can be used as a resource transfer mechanism which offers tangible and intangible benefits to both recipients and givers.
Implicit egocentrism in consumer behavior Scott Connors and Andrew W. Perkins
Our self is the center of our reality. In this chapter we argue that this centrality of the self, or egocentrism, informs us in most (if not all) consumption settings. The self sits at the center of our cognitive world, and our understanding of that world is the result of a constant processing of information through the filter of our self. This main idea of our chapter is evidenced by current research that suggests that by linking a brand or product with one’s self, positive feelings toward that brand or product will automatically be formed in memory. This is because people generally have positive self-esteem; in other words, they like themselves. This self-liking is transferred from the self to that brand or product without any effort on the part of the consumer. These self-associated brands or products are more easily remembered, have a positive impact on brand awareness, increase consumer-based brand equity (the effect that positive feelings toward brands has on the value of that brand), and affect product choice. Further, these positive feelings can be formed through a group to which one belongs: become a member of a group, and you will automatically form positive feelings toward brands to which that group is associated.
This chapter is important because we describe two new areas of inquiry that will allow marketing practitioners to understand how changes in the relationship between different selves, groups and brands affect brand perception. First, we describe how a change in brand strategy (for example, the Old Spice male grooming brand repositioning itself toward a younger market) can cause a cascade of changes to the brand knowledge structure in consumer memory, and then we discuss how the number of identities linked to a brand may protect the brand when its actions may threaten any one of those identities.
Reminiscing on self‒brand connections: differentiating experiential versus symbolic origins Jennifer Edson Escalas, Iñigo Gallo and Tarje Gaustad
In this chapter we argue that identity-based connections to brands can arise based on consumers’ personal experience with the brand. Self‒brand connections (SBCs) represent the extent to which consumers have formed a connection between their identity ‒ that is, their sense of who they are ‒ and a brand. Research into SBCs has focused on the symbolic nature of brand linkages to identity, for example, how consumers form connections to brands to create, verify and bolster their identities, as well as communicate who they are to others. However, we find evidence that SBC can be based on personal experiences with brands, linking consumers to their past, reminding them of important people and events from their past, or providing a sense of nostalgia. Given that special experiences are central to identity, brand connections based on these occasions also become linked to consumers’ sense of self. We develop a scale to measure SBCs based on personal experiences with the brand, and propose directions for future research where we expect there may be interesting differences based on whether an SBC was formed for symbolic purposes or based on personal experiences.
This chapter is important because there are many positive downstream consequences of SBCs for marketers: strong, favorable brand attitudes; high brand loyalty; forgiveness of marketing blunders, and so on. When consumers’ identities are linked to a brand, then the company behind the brand may be able to gain an enduring competitive advantage, because this type of connection is difficult for competitors to imitate.
Ownership and identity: a cognitive perspective Gita Venkataramani Johar, Jaeyeon Chung and Liad Weissa
In this chapter, we: (1) offer a cognitive analysis of the identity-related connections between consumers and their products; and (2) describe the marketing implications of these connections for product judgments and consumer choice. Consumers form connections with products and incorporate them into their identities through obtaining legal or psychological ownership of these products. These identity connections have important and diverse cognitive implications: they fundamentally change how people judge owned and non-owned products, as well as alter how people evaluate themselves and behave. We divide our review of these cognitive implications into two domains. We first build on egocentric categorization theory to outline how the connection of consumers with specific products (for example, an Apple computer known for its creativity) affects their judgement and behavior in relevant domains (for example, creativity judgments and performance). For example, we explain when and how owning (versus not owning) an Apple computer can boost the consumer’s perception of their own creativity and subsequently increase their creative behavior. We then use the “see-saw self” model to describe how the connection between consumers and specific products affects their performance in irrelevant domains.
This chapter is important and meaningful to consumers, marketers and managers alike. It informs consumers of the various unintended ways in which the products they own can shape their judgments and behavior. It also informs managers and marketers of the specific ways in which gifts and rewards can serve as weapons of stealth influence that effectively shape employee performance and consumer choice. We discuss possible avenues for consumer identity research.
Temporal identity and the pursuit of self-enhancement Sokiente W. Dagogo-Jack
In this chapter I argue that temporal identity, or the constellation of consumers’ past, present and future selves, is a key source of positive selfesteem, and these positive feelings about oneself can transfer to brands and products that consumers associate with themselves. This main idea in my chapter is evidenced by research showing that consumers’ feelings about themselves can automatically transfer to self-associated brands and products; and further illustrated in the areas of temporal self-appraisal theory, which holds that people can rely on their past and future selves, as well as comparisons involving past and future selves, to obtain and maintain positive self-esteem. Here, I suggest that the self-esteem that transfers from consumers to brands is at least in part derived from past and future selves, and comparisons involving past and future selves. Specifically, research on temporal identity has identified some psychological tendencies that enable people to maintain high self-esteem. First, people generally prefer improvement to stability or decline, and they exaggerate their past deficiencies in order to conclude that they have improved over time. Additionally, people distance themselves from past failures but feel psychologically closer to past successes. Finally, people project their perceptions of their own change onto external entities such as brands. Through these various temporal identity mechanisms, consumers can boost their self-esteem, a critical driver of brand evaluations.
This chapter is important because it illuminates an essential determinant of self-esteem and, consequently, brand and product judgments. Although consumers regularly consider their past and future selves, the influence of temporal identity on self-esteem has received little attention. By considering the self in terms of the past, present and future, academics can refine their understanding of how consumers gain and maintain self-esteem, and practitioners can more effectively leverage self-esteem to boost product evaluations.
A framework for considering dissociative identity effects in consumption Bonnie Simpson, Lea Dunn and Katherine White
In this chapter, we argue that although people are often influenced by groups that carry positive associations (that is, membership groups they belong to and aspirational groups they admire), the motivation to avoid particular groups can also lead to compelling influences on consumer attitudes and behaviors. We refer to this avoidance effect (striving not to be seen as or associated with a negatively viewed “other”) as dissociation. In this chapter, we delineate three processes that drive dissociation effects: (1) consistency threat – consumers choose not to purchase a particular product because the group that has adopted it does not resonate with their private sense of self (and choosing this option would threaten selfconsistency); (2) negative information – consumers will avoid products they view as imbuing their own identity with negative associations; and (3) misidentification avoidance – consumers will abandon products or preferences to avoid being misidentified by others as a member of a dissociative group. Further, we identify a fourth process, positive identity contrast, whereby a dissociative referent can lead to approach behaviors to positively differentiate the self from the dissociative group. We provide evidence for these dissociative processes, and discuss future directions for research that explore solutions to overcoming dissociative effects.
Practitioners can draw on this chapter to determine appropriate means to communicate or advertise a product relative to their target market, and also when non-target groups adopt their product. Consumers, through an understanding of dissociative motives, may be able to better accept and respond to dissociative out-groups. Finally, we explore dissociation through the perspective of how polarizing the world has become in many facets of life, such that demonstrating who you are not carries more weight than who you are.
This chapter is important because, by understanding how and why dissociation occurs, consumers may be able to overcome these motives in ways that lead to a more cohesive and compassionate understanding of others.
Identity and compensatory consumption Derek D. Rucker and Christopher Cannon
In this chapter we argue that people are motivated to maintain or strive toward a desired identity. Desired identities can take several forms, such as that of a business professional, a university student or a writer. However, in everyday life, people encounter information or receive feedback that threatens or challenges a desired identity. This chapter explores how people regularly use consumption to reconcile discrepancies between an actual and desired identity. This main idea in our chapter is evidenced by prior research showing that people engage in “compensatory consumption,” whereby they alter their consumption preferences and behavior preferences in a manner to offset a discrepancy between their actual and desired identity. This is further illustrated in the areas of intelligence threats, social belonging threats and professional identity threats. For example, an MBA student who lacks the prestigious job offers of their peers might compensate by purchasing a Rolex watch and expensive suit as means to affirm the identity of a successful business person. A college student may feel socially disconnected when nobody comments on their Facebook status post; to feel socially connected, they might purchase university apparel worn by their peers. An aspiring author’s identity can be challenged as they toss another page they are unsatisfied with into the wastebasket; as a result, they may purchase a new pen to signal to themself that they are a true writer.
This chapter is important because out of all the ways people deal with threats to their identity, consumption is frequently used to assuage discrepancies between their actual and desired identities. Academics and consumers alike can appreciate the different consumption strategies that consumers adopt in their quest to maintain a consistent identity in the face of negative identity-relevant information.
Associations matter: revisiting the threat typology model Katie Spangenberg and Justin Angle
In this chapter we explore types of identity threats and offer a framework for understanding why, when and how threats differ. Everyone has a sense of identity, or a set of labels they associate themselves with, such as nationality, gender or intelligence. These associations can be threatened in multiple ways. For instance, you could hear bad things about your home country, or you could be told you are a poor representative of it. Specifically, some threats result in behaviors that seek to verify an identity, while others lead to behaviors aimed at distancing the self from an identity.
The main idea in our chapter, understanding nuances of identity threat, builds from prior studies in consumer research that approach identity threat in many ways. We present an updated model of identity threat, the threat typology model, which conceptualizes threats by the specific associations they target. The threat typology model presents three broad categories of threat ‒ identity valence threat, identity strength threat and self-esteem threat ‒ and offers predictions for whether a threat will result in behavior that approaches or avoids the focal identity.
This chapter is important because brands invest millions of dollars to cultivate and reinforce customers’ brand affiliation. Certain identity threats undermine consumer‒brand affiliation, while other types of identity threats bolster it. For example, a marketer might anticipate that using a female spokesperson will increase consumer‒brand affiliation. However, research finds that if a female spokesperson represents a technology product, negative stereotypes about women and technology are activated, resulting in decreased customer interest. We also suggest that there are times when brands would benefit from the counterintuitive approach of making customers feel less secure in their connection to a brand. Thus, marketing managers add value to their firms by understanding consumer behaviors in response to threats.
Memory pointers and identity Gal Zauberman, Kristin Diehl and Alixandra Barasch
In this chapter we argue that the role and use of memory pointers ‒ objects or photos that people believe will help them remember a particular experience ‒ is critical to how people establish and verify their identities. People’s experiences are central to their identities (for example, attending college, special trips), but it is not only the actual experiences one has: possibly more important are the memories of these experiences. Since people generally believe in the importance of experiences to their identities over time, people purposefully invest in memory pointers, tangible reminders that will help them cue these memories later on, both for themselves and to be shared with others. People believe that memory pointers are more effective at triggering memories when they are specific to a particular experience or setting (for example, a shirt with the dorm logo versus a shirt with the college logo), and thus they are better able to verify and shape one’s identity.
This chapter is important because demand for specificity may explain why people take so many photographs, as photos are inherently linked to the particular time and place when they were taken. Taking photos as memory pointers can further yield the added benefit of increasing engagement with the experience that is being photographed, which amplifies positive experiences and also heightens one’s visual memories of the experience. When memory pointers are acquired with the intention to share them with others, people select different types of pointers than if they intend to use these memory pointers only for themselves. For example, photo albums to be shared may include more staged pictures of people who are smiling, while albums for oneself may include more candid moments. As a whole, this chapter highlights the importance of memory pointer acquisition and usage in people’s desire to verify their identities over time.
Identity, personal continuity and psychological connectedness across time and over transformation Oleg Urminsky and Daniel Bartels
In this chapter we argue that a person’s views about their identity over time are shaped by their own judgments of their personal continuity: the degree to which the person feels that the things about them that define them are likely to remain unchanged over time, in the future self. People’s feelings about their personal continuity can affect their decisions about the future, such as whether to save or spend. People judge the impact of life changes on their identity based on whether the change is expected and how central the change is to their identity, and may welcome or avoid change based on the implications for their future identity. Because people generally think that they will improve in the future, the possibility that some aspects of their identity may get worse is threatening to their identity. However, because people have many aspects that make up their identity, not all changes threaten their identity equally; what matters is how central to the person’s identity a specific aspect is. When people think that they will change as a person, and their future self will be fundamentally different, they are less motivated to invest or sacrifice for that future self. We review research which has studied how people think of their personal continuity in relation to anticipated identity-relevant changes, and how people’s perceptions of their future self affect their decision-making.
This chapter is important because it bridges different academic disciplines that have studied identity (social, cognitive and consumer psychology, as well as philosophy) to propose a unifying approach to how people think about their identity over time and their future self. Understanding how people think of identity-relevant change may help to identify more effective ways to communicate with people about trade-offs involving the future.
How technology shapes identity-based consumer behavior Eugina Leung, Gabriele Paolacci and Stefano Puntonia
In this chapter we argue that technology can both facilitate and hinder the process of self-verification; that is, how people monitor their progress towards being a particular type of person. We explore five different technological domains, namely the Internet, dematerialization, automation, artificial intelligence and human enhancement. For each technological domain, we review how technology expands the range of options that individuals have for holding on to identities and for positive self-verification, as well as the limits that technology can place on the same processes. This main idea in our chapter is evidenced by recent research on identity in consumer behavior and marketing, as well as relevant research in psychology and other disciplines, including robotics, biotechnology and other technological domains.
This chapter is important because hi-tech products are becoming commonplace. As consumers rely more and more on amazing machines and algorithms for their needs, new areas are fast opening up for researchers interested in identity. How does the Internet allow people to monitor their progress in the journey towards being the kind of person they want to be? Can artificial intelligence limit the construction of new identities or the development of existing ones? What new questions emerge when humans are able to alter their physical and mental capabilities through human enhancement technology? Finding answers to these and other related questions is important and urgent, as in the years to come these phenomena are likely to have vast repercussions for consumers, businesses and society at large.
Identity verification through pain in extraordinary consumer experiences Rebecca Scott, Katharina C. Husemann and Tim Hill
In this chapter we argue that through pain, identity verification work can be intensified, suspended or refocused. Identity verification is where consumers monitor feedback from their environment to determine the extent to which they are progressing towards their ideal identity. We study this process in three experiences where physical and mental suffering is commonplace: pilgrimages on the Camino de Santiago, Tough Mudder obstacle courses, and British football fandom. Pilgrims overcome painful blistered feet, and in so doing, reflect upon who they are, grow beyond themselves, and intensify their identity verification work. By navigating Tough Mudder obstacle courses and being crippled by the intense pain that stems from freezing water and electric shocks, consumers suspend the identity verification process. Hardcore British football fans treat pain as the trigger to refocus their identity verification work, as the physical suffering that comes from drug use causes them to rethink who they want to be. By exploring the interplay between identity verification and consumer experiences we illustrate how the feedback that triggers identity verification is not necessarily rooted in the external environment, but can also reside in painful bodies.
This chapter is important because it illustrates how pain is a driver of identity verification work, which previous marketing studies have not yet touched upon. Given the central and enduring role of experiences in consumer society, and the pertinent role of pain as driver of sensation within emergent consumption experiences, our chapter informs understandings of identity construction and provides important implications for consumer research scholars and experiential marketers. For example, practitioners operating in experiential marketplaces such as sport, entertainment and travel may wish to note how identity verification can be drawn from “pain communities” that turn to the marketplace to relish in physical discomfort.
The creation of identity and brand meaning: the automatic versus creative use of mental models in language Colette Lelchuk, Marianne Gordon, Torsten Ringberg and David Luna
In this chapter we argue that the use of brands to create a sense of self and identity differs radically across two positions based on different positions. This has ramifications for how we conceptualize the influence of language to make sense of self, including the use of brands as a symbolic resource in this process. The main idea in our chapter is evidenced by the presence of two opposing streams of literature, the cognitivist and the culturalist. The cognitivist position suggests that individuals have agency, which enables them to freely select from a toolset of internalized mental models to express a unique sense of self through language; whereas the culturalist position suggests that the toolset of internalized mental models controls individuals’ identity formation. The impact of these positions is further illustrated in the area of the symbolic use of language and brands to create a sense of self.
This chapter is important because it highlights an apparent theoretical and conceptual inconsistency between two influential research camps in consumer research that affects how researchers understand sense-making and identity formation, and how brand managers ought to position and communicate the symbolic value of brands. It also speaks to an increasing interest within neuro-science research on whether executive functioning exists, and whether it is indeed in charge of guiding our thought processes.
The role of self-structure in managing identity conflict Karen Page Winterich, Nicole Verrochi Coleman and Sara Loughran Dommer
In this chapter, we argue that it is not just the identities a person has, but the relationships between those identities and how they are organized, that shape behavior. For example, imagine two women who are both mothers, runners and lawyers. One woman sees these three selves as very interconnected and similar; her competitive spirit and assertiveness in the courtroom is consistent with her approach to running races and parenting. The other woman, however, sees these three selves as quite distinct and separate; she leaves her assertiveness at work, sees her role as a mother as that of a nurturing teacher, and her running is just for enjoyment without competition. Despite having the same identities, these women have clearly different selves, which we might expect would change the way they respond to identity-based marketing.
The main idea in our chapter is evidenced by the difficulty people have choosing between identity products. Self-structure can range from very simple, such as just two identities that are very similar to each other, what we call a unified self-structure; to a very complex system, where there are many identities, all of which are quite different, a diverse self-structure. We find that people with unified selves experience less identity conflict when choosing between identities; because the small number of selves are all similar, choosing any particular identity is like choosing the others. On the other hand, consumers with more diverse self-structures – because each identity is very different from the others – experience a high degree of conflict, and thus find it quite hard to choose between identity products.
This chapter is important because we go beyond the content of the self (that is, the identities) to consider the structure of the self (that is, how many and how similar the identities are) to look at consumer responses, particularly identity conflict. This one example, of choosing between identity products, shows how important the effect of structure can be: two people with the same identity can have very different responses if that identity is in a unified structure versus a diverse one. While we explore the implications of self-structure on identity conflict, we suggest future research directions in this area, and encourage work that goes beyond the content of the self, and considers how the content is organized.
Causal beliefs in the self-concept and identity-based consumption Stephanie Y. Chen
In this chapter, I argue that consumers’ beliefs about how the aspects that make them who they are as individuals (their identities, memories, moral qualities, personality traits, and so on) have shaped and influenced each other are a critical part of how they think about the self, and provide insight into how influential their identities will be on their behavior. More specifically, the more a consumer sees an identity as having caused or been caused by other aspects of who they are, the more important that identity will be and the more likely they will be to act in ways consistent with that identity. For example, an Apple-user who thinks that their choice of profession as a graphic designer and their personality traits shaped their loyalty to Apple is going to be more likely to see the Apple-user identity as important and to do things associated with Apple-users (for example, wait in line for hours for the newest iProduct) than someone who has the exact same profession, personality and Apple-user identity but sees them as all relatively unrelated to each other. The main idea of my chapter is evidenced by a series of studies that find that these causal beliefs do indeed influence how important an identity is to a person, and is further illustrated in the area of identity-based consumption by a second series of studies which find that these causal beliefs also predict which consumers are more or less likely to make choices consistent with a given identity.
This chapter is important because it reviews a new way of thinking about how consumers think of the self and about identity-based consumption that focuses on beliefs about the relationships between identities and the rest of the self, a factor that has largely been ignored by other approaches to these topics. In doing so, this chapter provides a deeper understanding of what makes an identity important, and which consumers will be more or less likely to make choices that relect their identities.
No (wo)man is an island: dyadic decision-making and identity conflict Hristina Nikolova and Cait Lamberton
In this chapter, we argue that dyadic as opposed to individual decisionmaking contexts can both create and resolve identity conflicts in ways that are important for consumer behavior and well-being. First, we posit that dyadic contexts could create identity conflict because of possible assimilation of one’s partner’s identity, the development and adoption of a new couple-oriented identity, or simply the emergence of socially activated goals. Second, we also argue that in addition to being a source of identity conflict, dyadic contexts could also offer means for its resolution. Specifically, during major life transitions (for example, retirement and the beginning of parenthood), when identity is most threatened, dyadic contexts can help to resolve identity conflict and aid in the transition to new identities.
This chapter is important because if we can understand the way that being in couples can both create identity conflict and push us toward resolution, we can understand the way in which non-solo experiences can help us grow toward our desired identity or change us in ways that might serve to further isolate us. Furthermore, the chapter raises interesting and important questions for future research that could help to illuminate whether the identity conflicts and resolutions we might experience in the context of couples, family units, work partnerships or friendships should be considered a net positive or negative force for our identities, lives and relationships.
Cultural identities in the era of globalization: implications for consumer behavior Carlos J. Torelli and Hyewon Oh
In this chapter we review recent research on globalization, cultural identities, and branding to explain how multicultural consumers navigate a marketplace loaded with a mixture of cultural meanings. The main idea is that globalization promotes culture-mixing within the individual, as well as outside the individual in products and brands. Culture-mixing can create conflict within the individual, and may result in negative brand evaluations. However, resolving cultural conflict can improve consumer well-being and generate favorable brand attitudes. The chapter identifies multiple factors that determine the extent to which cultural conflict is resolved, and outlines an agenda for future research in this area.
This chapter is important because globalization is bringing brands that symbolize a variety of cultures to a consumer population that is also growing in cultural diversity. In this environment, it is critical for marketers to understand how consumers respond to the cultural meanings in brands.
Prevalence, antecedents and consequences of actual‒desired attitude discrepancies S. Christian Wheeler and Kenneth G. DeMarree
In this chapter, we argue that people can want to have attitudes that differ from their actual attitudes and that these “desired attitudes” can have important implications for persuasion and behavioral outcomes. This difference between a person’s desired attitude (for example, liking American automobiles a lot) and their actual attitude (for example, liking them only somewhat) creates an actual‒desired attitude discrepancy.
The main idea in our chapter is evidenced by research showing that actual‒desired attitude discrepancies are pervasive and consequential. When actual and desired attitudes conflict, they cause evaluative tension, as reflected by feeling conflicted, feeling indecisive and feeling torn. This evaluative tension motivates behaviors that may be aimed at reducing the discrepancy, such as increased interest in information about the topic.
Desired attitudes predict people’s behavior and information processing over and above their actual attitudes. For example, people may consume products that they do not actually like, but instead consume products that they desire to like, sometimes because they want to adopt attitudes consistent with a desired identity. Similarly, people will seek information and process information in biased ways so as to bring their actual attitudes more in line with their desired attitudes. An American who wants to like American cars more than they currently do, for example, might seek out and pay more attention to favorable information about American cars so as to generate an actual attitude more consistent with their desired attitude (and their American identity).
This research is important because desired attitudes have significant effects on persuasion and on behavior. Knowing about people’s desired attitudes helps to explain why (actual) attitudes do not always predict behavior or persuasion, and reveals a hidden but pervasive driver of consumer behavior.
Religious identity in marketing Joseph E. Barbour, Naomi Mandel and Adam B. Cohen
In this chapter we discuss the roles of religious identities in consumer behaviors. We propose that religious affiliation (for example, Muslim or Christian) and religiosity (that is, the strength of one’s connection to religion) combine to form one’s religious identity, which then becomes activated and utilized in certain consumer scenarios. An integral point is that while one may always possess a religious identity, this identity is only activated in consumer scenarios that are relevant to religious outcomes (for example, avoiding certain religiously forbidden foods). We discuss four dimensions of religion based on prior literature: beliefs, values, rituals and communities. Religiously relevant consumer behavior will likely reflect one, or some combination, of these religious dimensions.
Our chapter draws upon empirical literature in marketing and social, cultural and religious psychology to show that people often choose products and services because of their religious meaning (for example, wearing modest versus revealing clothing). There are two types of religiously motivated consumption: goal-related and symbolic. That is, a product might appeal to a consumer for its ability to help achieve an intrinsic religious goal (for example, a stronger relationship with God) or an extrinsic goal (for example, signaling religious membership or devotion to others). Throughout the chapter, we intermix empirical support for our claims with original examples to help further illustrate how these concepts work together.
The content of this chapter is important for marketers, psychologists and laypeople to understand, because it draws attention to just how meaningful and powerful religious identity can be in decision scenarios of all kinds. Though religious identity may not be relevant to all consumer decision scenarios, it may be particularly influential in the ones where it is.
Political ideology: basis for a dynamic social identity Donnel A. Briley, Kiju Jung and Shai Danziger
In this chapter we survey evidence that consumers’ political identities (for example, conservative, liberal) impact their consumption-related decisions and behaviors. As a result, in a consumer context conservatives are less likely to challenge organizations (complaining and boycotting), to adopt change (new product trial and innovation) and to choose unfamiliar, less established brands. This main idea in our chapter is evidenced by literature showing that conservatives (vs. liberals), who are rooted in a stronger need for security and uncertainty reduction, are more likely to defend the systems and institutions that protect the status quo and resist change. Importantly, the effect of political ideology is dynamic, with situational influences making consumers become more likely to embrace or resist change.
This chapter is important because addressing the vast array of critical issues faced by today’s polarized society – including climate change, immigration, healthcare, gender bias and fiscal policy – will require academics, marketers and public policy officials to gain a thorough understanding of how and when political identity exerts influence. This knowledge offers a critical first step toward improving communications and messaging on these topics, and establishing bipartisan agreement.
Identity in the digital age Lauren Grewal and Andrew T. Stephen
In this chapter we argue that identity expression, when done through digital and social media platforms has different ramifications for consumers from how identity expression has traditionally been studied in the offline physical world. This main idea in our chapter is evidenced by the different steps that occur for online, compared to offline, identity expression that change how consumers can create, maintain and express different identities that they may or may (or may not) hold in their physical lives. We discuss how digital identity expression can differ in its thought process and ramifications at each step of the process: (1) the antecedents to online identity expression; (2) the consequences of online identity expression; (3) the online platform chosen to express identity; and (4) possible audiences to digital identity expression. We also present some preliminary data which showcase that identity, when expressed online, may cause consumers to be identity-inconsistent in their subsequent behavior. This finding contradicts what identity-relevance and prior research would predict about behavior for a salient identity.
This chapter is important because the Internet is pervasive in people’s lives, yet the way people can create, actively engage with or fulfill different identities using digital platforms is largely unknown. The insights of this chapter help to inform academics on future research that can be conducted on this topic; marketers and business practitioners on considerations they need to take when encouraging identity expression in relation to their products and brands on digital and social media; and general consumers in society on how they can best optimize digital platforms for their different identities.
The role of identity relevance in the retail environment Jennifer Argo
In this chapter I argue that elements of the brick-and-mortar retail environment (both the physical environment, such as store layout and design; and the social environment, including other shoppers and salespeople) influence consumers using the perspective of a consumer identity researcher. My intent is to highlight how a variety of elements found in the retail space, from lighting to aisle width, to salespeople, and so on, can be identity-relevant for consumers and in turn impact their responses.
This chapter is important because it highlights a number of research ideas that could be pursued to further our understanding of the relationship between identity and the retail environment.
Identity and charitable giving: the six-self framework Jen Shang
In this chapter I argue for the usefulness of a six-element self framework that includes I/me-selves, meta-self, not-I/me-selves and united self. Extant research illustrates how charitable giving can be increased by about 10 percent by focusing on only one or two I/me-selves at a time. I will argue that more substantive uplifts may be possible by tapping into other elements of my model. I provide examples of how fundraisers can utilize the conflict management function of the meta-self, so, for example, it is possible that Mothers Against Drunk Driving can raise more money if it taps into how mothers who lost a child to a drunk driver can transition from a victim I-self to a conqueror I-self. This is a meta-self function, because for quite a few months mothers may struggle to decide which I-self they should give dominion to when deciding how to live their lives (that is I-self conflict management). Such a message also has the potential to help these mothers feel better faster, compared to messages that tap into only one I-self at a time. I also give examples of how fundraisers can tap into donors’ united self, whose function is to derive the most harmonious self that includes both I/me-selves and not-I/me-selves. For example, supporters of Amnesty International may give because they care for those whose human rights are abused (for example, their loving I-self) and because they have no tolerance for such abuse (for example, their loving not-I-self). The harmony the united self drives is one in which Amnesty supporters fight for as long as necessary to care for (and express their love for) the abused. The united self balances the loving I-self and the loving not-I-self.
This chapter is important because hyper-personalizing fundraising communications under the guidance of the six-component self-framework can transform the quality of relationship that donors have with charities and the degree to which giving can transform lives.
Children’s materialism and identity development Lan Nguyen Chaplin, L.J. Shrum and Tina M. Lowrey
In this chapter, we argue that the development of identity and materialism in children and adolescents are fundamentally linked. Like adults, children use possessions to signal fundamental aspects of their identity to both themselves and important others. How their identity develops, and how they learn to signal their identities, results from important socialization factors, in particular, parents, peers and media. In terms of identity, we focus on three fundamental identity motives: self-esteem, personal power and efficacy, and belonging. We review research that demonstrates that the socialization factors influence identity development, which in turn influences children’s materialism, or the extent to which they use possessions to signal identity. Further, we show that the influence of identity on children’s materialism is especially prevalent when they experience threats or self-deficits in their identities.
This chapter is important because both marketers and public policymakers need to understand how and why children become more or less materialistic. For example, legislation restricting particular advertising practices when advertising to children needs to consider developmental changes in which influences exert the most power. That is, at earlier ages, children may be more influenced by parents than by peers or social media; but this situation often changes as children approach adolescence. A clear understanding of how these six influences interact with one another is critical.
Identity-based perceptions of others’ consumption choices Jenny G. Olson, Brent McFerran, Andrea C. Morales and Darren W. Dahl
In this chapter we argue that studying “identity” means moving beyond the “self.” Consumers exist in a social context, meaning that the choices they make: (1) reinforce their own identities; and (2) provide information about who they are to other people. For example, someone (an “actor”) might choose to buy organic produce; someone else (an “observer”) may perceive this individual as an environmentally conscious Millennial with higher disposable income. Importantly, observers may use an actor’s perceived identities to judge the “appropriateness” of a given purchase. We illustrate these points by focusing on income identity (for example, socio-economic status) and ethical consumption choices (that is, choices that are prosocial but costly) in the United States (US). Across several experiments, we find that low-income consumers receiving government assistance in the US (“welfare recipients”) are seen as less moral when they choose ethical products, such as organic food and eco-friendly vehicles. This occurs in part because people expect those who are poor to be frugal. Conversely, wealthier consumers are seen as more moral for the same choices, in part because of a belief that they have earned spending freedom. We also find that these judgments extend to non-financial choices such as volunteering time.
This chapter is important because it highlights that who we are impacts perceptions of what we do, which may have consequences for our relationships with other consumers, government agencies and non-profit organizations. For example, identity-based cues may influence hiring practices (for example, poor actors are seen as less employable than wealthy actors), government policies (for example, some people may be seen as more “deserving” of aid than others), and the ability to solicit donations (for example, people donate less to a charity providing organic food versus conventional food to aid recipients). We hope our chapter inspires additional research activity into understanding how observer-based identity judgments influence consumer well-being and marketplace experiences.
When do identity-relevant symbols backfire? An exploration of identity-symbolic fixed and malleable connotations Tracy Rank-Christman and Geraldine Rosa Henderson
In this chapter, we argue that identity-relevant symbols, at times, may backfire. We suggest that one way identity-relevant symbols backfire when an identity is paired with a symbol that provokes negative mental associations in the mind of the consumer. In this chapter, we introduce identity-relevant symbols as having fixed or malleable connotations. We propose that identity-relevant symbols may have a single meaning within an identity (that is, identity-symbolic fixed connotation), but multiple meanings between some identities (that is, identity-symbolic malleable connotation). The main idea in our chapter is evidenced by identity relevance, semiotics and symbolic connotations, which is further illustrated in the areas of self-concept mindsets, frame-switching and double consciousness.
This chapter is important because, until now, marketers and academics have used and discussed identity-relevant symbols as if they all convey the same meaning to all consumer identities. Yet, by making this assumption, academics and marketers fail not only to understand the value of marketplace symbols, but also to recognize how symbols can be used to connect or disconnect with consumers who obtain unique identities. In this chapter, we provide academics with future research ideas that may help to better develop our current understanding of identity-relevant symbols. We also provide marketers with ways to assess marketing materials prior to launch. Finally, we propose that further empirical support is merited around identity‒symbol pairings.
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